Penetration Testing Scope

brainwave Testing ScopeThe main objective of this document is to post the readers a view on im port wineance of incursion adjudicate in entanglement warrantor and how it go ground away overcome the profit tri stille issues and how plaques are determining their trade protection weaknesses in their internet infrastructures. With the help of this document, readers give the bounce obtain screwledge virtually advantages, strategies, character references, brutes and techniques of the sharpness scrutiny.Introduction brainstorm attempting method is one of the oldest network shelter techniques for evaluating the securities of a network outline. insight stressing method employ by Department of refutal in early 1970s to determine the surety weaknesses in computer agreement and to initiate the using of programs to create to a greater extent secure governance. Using insight test, organization can fix their aegis weaknesses forrader they get unprotected. Man y companies are using this method beca put on perceptiveness testing ordain go out comely surety selective information systems and service to the organizations network systems. establishment can reduce risk in their network system using penetration testing tools and techniques.The main objective of the penetration testing is to evaluate the protective covering weaknesses of the organizations network systems. Penetration testing has more secondary objectives and that allow help the organization to discover their security incidents and as well test the security conscious(predicate)ness of the employees.Scope and Goals of the Penetration TestingIdentifying gaps in security Organization can identify the gap of the system security and company can develop an action stick out to reduce the threat with the help of penetration test.Help to create gruelling business case A penetration test moderate document testament help the manager to create a strong business case to produ ce the security message at the implementation stage.To discover new threats Penetration testing measures testament help the organization to queue the new threats.To focus on internal security resources A Penetration test and its security analysis allow the organization to focus internal security resources.To meet regulatory compliances Organization can meet their regulatory compliances using penetration testing tools.To find weakest tie in Penetration test and security audit pass on assist the firm to find the weakest link in their intricate structure and it will provide baseline security for all typical entities. render validation feedback Penetration test deliver validation feedback to business entities and security theoretical account that lead the organization to reduce the risk in the implementation. mannequins of the Penetration Test baringPlanningAttackReporting supererogatory DiscoveryPlanning word formScope of the test will be de lovelyd in cookery anatomy. In this phase, testing team will get the approvals, documents and agreements bid NDA (Non-Disclosure Agreement) and they will set the baseline for hard-hitting penetration test after that documents are signed. Penetration test team will get plastered input from animate security plan, indus demonstrate standards and best practices while defining their scope for the test. No objective testing practise happens in the planning stage.Factor influencing the undefeated Penetration testTime level-headed restrictionDiscovery PhaseThe real testing activity will start from this phase. In this stage, they used to identify the potential laughingstock using network scanning and to gather information using port scanning and other techniques. Vulnerability is the second part of this discovery phase. In this stage, application, operating system and services are equated against vulnerability database. Normally human examiners use their own database or public database to find vulnerabilities manually . comparing with automated testing, manual testing is better way to identify the new vulnerabilities but this type of testing is era consuming unlike automated testing. This Phase can be come on Characterized asFootprinting PhaseCanning and Enumeration PhaseVulnerability Analysis PhaseFootprinting PhaseThe process of footprinting is a completely non-disturbing activity executed to get information available about the stigma organization and its system using non-homogeneous resources, two technical and non-technical. This process includes look into the internet, querying various public repositories (Database, Domain registrar, Usenet groups and mailing list).In this phase, penetration tester will gather significant information and confidential data through internet without probing the target system. Penetration tester will train the social engineering attacks for that they will collect worthy information like IT setup details, e-mail address of the company, device configurati on and username and password.In this phase, penetration tester tries to find various loopholes and try to explore data leakage about the target organization in shortest time finish. Mostly procedure of this phase can be automated using customized script and microscopical programs.Scanning and EnumerationThe scanning and enumeration phase includes lot of activity like identifying the live system, circularise / filtered ports found, service running on these ports, identifying the operating system details, network path discovery, mapping router / firewall rules, etc.Penetration tester must be careful while using the tools for these activities because they should not overwhelm the target systems with original traffic. Before going into live scenario, successive phase should be time-tested completely in a testing environment.Types of Port digital scannerNmapSuperScanHping returnss should be fingerprinted either manually or using alert tools after successfully identifying the open ports. Penetration tester will provide exact name and form of the services which running on the target system and the underlying Operating system before including these in the final report. Also this will help to identifying and removing numerous false positive found later.Existing fingerprint ToolsXprobe2QuesoNmapAmapWinfingerprintP0fHttprintVulnerability AnalysisIn this stage, penetration tester will try to identify possible vulnerabilities constituteing in each target system after identifying the target systems and collecting required details from the preliminary phase. During this stage penetration tester may use automated tools to find the vulnerabilities in the target systems. These tools pretend their own record containing of latest vulnerabilities and their details.In vulnerability analysis stage, penetration tester will test the systems by giving invalid inputs, random strings, etc. to check for any errors or unintended demeanor in the systems output.Penetration teste r should not await only on his experience because a successful penetration tester should be up to date with latest security related activities and join with security related mailing-lists, security blogs, advisories, etc. to keep him updated to the latest vulnerabilities.Types of Vulnerability ScannersNessusShadow security department ScannerRetinaISS ScannerSARAGFI LANguardAttack PhaseAttack phase is a vital stage in penetration testing, the intimately challenging and interesting phase for the penetration tester. This Phase can be further Characterized asontogenesis PhasePrivilege Escalation PhaseExploitation PhaseIn this phase, penetration tested will try to identify activities for the various vulnerabilities found in the previous stage. Penetration tester can get more resources from internets that provide consequence-of-conception raps for most of the vulnerabilities.In exploitation stage, all exploit should be tested thoroughly before going for a real implementation. If any vulnerabilities critical system not exploited thus penetration tester should give sufficient documented proof-of-concepts about the impact of the vulnerability on the organizations business.Exploitation FrameworksMetasploit realizeCore Security Technologys ImpactImmunitys CANVASInstead of running exploitation, penetration tester need to use the full potential framework to reduce the time in writing custom exploits.Gaining AccessDiscovery PhaseRising PrivilegeSystem SurfingInstall Add Test Software adequacy data has beenGathered in the discovery phase to make an attempt toAccess the target.If only user-level assenting was obtained in the last step, the tester will now seek to gain complete cook of the system.The information gathering process begins again to identify mechanism to gain access to trusted system.Additional intro testing parcel is installed to gain additional information and/or access.Attack Phase Step with panorama back to Discovery PhasePrivilege EscalationIn thi s stage, penetration tester will make further analysis to get more information that will help to getting administrative privileges. Before act further process, penetration tester should get the prior permission from the target organization. Penetration tester will maintain his all activity report because in the reporting stage that will be the proof for all the activities completed. Tester may install additional software for higher level of privilege.Reporting PhaseReporting stage is the last phase in the penetration test methodology. Reporting phase will parlay occurred with other three stages or it will happen after attack phase. This reporting phase is very vital stage and this this report will cover both management and technical aspects, provide detailed information about all findings, figures with proper graphs. Penetration tester will provide equal presentation of the vulnerabilities and its impact to the business of the target organization.Final document will be detailed an d it will provide technical description of the vulnerabilities. Penetration tester should meet the client requirement in the documents also document should be detailed and that will show the ability of the successful penetration tester.Report make up ofExecutive SummaryDetailed FindingsRisk level of the Vulnerabilities foundBusiness ImpactRecommendationsConclusionPenetration Testing schemaExternal Testing StrategyIn this schema, process made from outside the organizations system to refers attack on the organizations network border, this may be through Internet or Extranet. External testing system will start with clients publically accessible information. Naturally the External testing approach will executed with non-disclosure or fully disclosure environment. This test will target the organizations externally visible horde or device like Domain Name Server (DNS), Firewall and E-mail server. internecine Testing StrategyInternal testing approach executed from inside the organizat ions technology environment. The focuses of the internal testing strategy is to know what could occur if the network border were penetrated effectively or what an authorized user could do to penetrate proper(postnominal) information resources inside the organizations network. Both type of testing techniques are similar but the allow for of both tests will vary prominently.Blind Testing StrategyBlind testing approach targets at feign the activities and processes of a real hacker. In this approach, testing team will provide limited information about organizations systems configuration. The penetration testing team gather information about the target to conduct its penetration test using publically available information like company web-site, domain name registry, internet preaching board and USENET. This testing approach can provide lot of information about the organization but this method of testing is very time consuming.Double Blind Testing StrategyThis testing strategy is an e xtension of blind testing approach. In this testing approach, IT and security staff of the organization will not informed earlier and are blind to the strategic testing activities. Double blind testing strategy is a vital component of testing because it can test the organizations security monitoring and incident identification, escalating and resolution procedure. The main objective of this testing approach is only few people from the organization will aware of this testing activity. Once the objective of the test has been achieved and so project manager will terminate the answer procedure of the organization and testing procedures.Targeted Testing StrategyAnother name of this testing strategy is lights-turned-on approach. In this testing approach, both organizations IT staff and penetration testing team involve in this testing activities. In this test, there will be a overstep understanding of testing actions and information about the target and network design. Targeted testing approach is very cost effective because this test mainly focused on technical setting or design of the network. This test can executed in less time and effort unlike blind test but this approach will not give clear picture of an organizations vulnerabilities and response capabilities.Types of Penetration testingThere are many type of penetration test available to test the network security of an organization. But type of penetration test may depend upon the organizations needs to test their network. dense-box TestingWhite-box TestingDOS (Denial Of Service)This type of testing tries to identify the weaknesses on the system through exhausting the targets resources because it will stop responding to legal request. Denial of service testing can bring about on both manually and automated tools. This test is classified into two types such as software exploits and flooding attacks. The level of this test depending upon the penetration tests information system and related resources. There are more formats in this test such asApplication Security TestingApplication security testing will protect the confidentiality and reliability of information using applications encryption and objective of this testing is to assess the control over the applications (Electronic commerce server, on-line financial applications, distributed applications and internet front ends to legacy systems) and its process flow.Components of Application Security TestingCode ReviewIn this type of testing, analysing the code of the application because it should not contain the delicate data.Authorization TestingAuthorization testing includes Analysing the system initiation and maintenance of the user sessions like remark validation of login fields, Cookies security and lockout testing.Functionality TestingFunctionality testing involves testing the functionality of the application such as input validation and transaction testing as presented to a user.War DiallingTools for Penetration TestingReconnai ssance ToolsNmap ( intercommunicate Mapper) intercommunicate machinator (Nmap) is a powerful port scan tool and its a part of reconnaissance tools of penetration testing. Network mapper has ability to regulate the operating system of the target system. Network mapper maintains a database for the target computer to find its operating systems resospnse3. Network mapper is a permitted product for network security review. Network mapper was intended to quickly scan big network but it will work fine against single network. Network mapper is compatible with all major operating system like Windows, Linux and macintosh operating system.2.Features of the Network mapper (Nmap)FlexibleNmap will support different advanced techniques for mapping out networks such as firewalls, IP filters and other obstacles. This tool also contains port scanners mechanism (TCP UDP), indication detection, version detection,PrevailingPortableEasyFreeWell documentedSupportedAcclaimedPopularhttp//www.computerwor ld.com/s/ name/9087439/Five_free_pen_testing_toolshttp//nmap.org/http//www.sans.org/reading_room/analysts_program/PenetrationTesting_June06.pdfhttps//buildsecurityin.us-cert.gov/bsi/articles/tools/penetration/657-BSI.htmlNessusNessus is a vulnerability assessment tool and its free domain software released by GPLS. This tool is intended to identify the security problem. Nessus helps the management people to rectify the security problem before exploitation. lymph node server technology is very powerful features of Nessus. Penetration tester can test from various signalise of the server because Different server technology placed in various place. It can control the unblemished server using multiple distributed clients or central client. This tool is very flexible for penetration tester because it can run on different operating system like MAC OS X and IBM/AIX but most of the server portion will run on UNIX.Features of the NessusUp-to-date security vulnerability DatabaseNessus tool w ill check the database regularly and Nessus can receive with the command Nessus-update-plugins. This tool will monitor all the plugins data.Remote and Local securityNessus has the ability to detect the remote faults of the host in a network and also it will remove local flaws and omitted areas.ScalableNessus is very scalable because it can run on a computer with low memory. If we give more power to this tool past it can scan our system quickly.Plug-InsEvery security test will be written in NASL also its printed as an exterior plugin. For updating the Nessus, it will not download binaries from internet and to understand the result of the Nessus report, every NASL can be read and modified.NASL (Nessus Attack Scripting Language)The Nessus security Scanner contain NASL, its a designed language to inscribe security test easily and quickly. NASL run in a controlled environment on top of a virtual device, this will make the Nessus a very secure scanner.Smart Service Recognition with Multi ple ServicesNessus tool helps to recognize the FTP server which running in an unnamed port. This is the first tool to hold this facility. If the host runs the similar services twice or more then Nessus can scan all of them.Full SSL Support and Non-DestructiveThis tool has the ability to scan SSL services like https, imaps, smtps and more. Nessus tool can integrate with PKI field environment. Nessus is the first scanning tool has this feature. Nessus tool will give more option to the tester to perform a regular non-destructive security audit.Packet Manipulation and password Cracking ToolsExploitation ToolsMetasploit VersionMetasploit framework is both penetration testing system and a using platform for creating security tools and techniques. Metasploit framework comprises of tools, facultys, libraries and user interfaces. Metasploit framework used to network security and network security professionals will use this framework to conduct penetration test, system administrators to ve rify the patch connection, to perform simple regression testing by product vendors, and security researcher world-wide. This tool offers valuable information and tools for penetration tester security researcher. Metasploit framework written in Ruby programming language and contains components written in C and assembler.The basic function of this tool is a Module launcher, allow the user to organize the exploit module and launch the module at target system. Metasploit is very user friendly to the penetration tester to conduct the test and it will give full network penetration testing capabilities. Metasploit is an open source framework and largest combined public databank of exploits.Security Forest exploitation FrameworkLimitations of Penetration TestingPenetration testing will not identify all vulnerabilities because normally this test will carried out as Black Box exercises. Penetration test will not provide information about new vulnerabilities those weaknesses identify after th e test. Penetration tester will not have sufficient information about the system. par with vulnerability assessments, penetration test is not the correct way to identify the weaknesses because vulnerability assessments can identify more issue than penetration testing using diagnostic review of all systems and all servers. Penetration test does not have that much time to evaluate and identify the vulnerabilities and penetration testing is a snapshot for an organization and its network security.ConclusionScope of the penetration testing should be increased. Time period of penetration testing is very limited. Time limit of penetration testing needs to be increased, then testing team can identify more issues and testing team can protect the network security of an organization. Further action needs to be taken against vulnerabilities that identified as a result of penetration test.Penetration TestingDefinitionsPenetration test is a method to assess the organizations data security system in dynamic way. The information security system of an organization will be tested to identify any security issues. In other way, penetration test is a theoretical or paper based audit.What is Penetration Test?Penetration test is a sequence of actions to find and exploit security weaknesses of the systems. Penetration test naturally includes group of people financed by the organization and Department of Internal Audit or IT department to conduct the test. Penetration test team member attempts to accomplish vulnerabilities in the system security of the organization using tools and techniques of the penetration test. The goal of the testing tem is to find out security weaknesses under controlled circumstances to eliminate the vulnerabilities before un important users can exploit them. Penetration testing is an authorised action to correct the hackers (unauthorised users) activities.Penetration test is a better way to find the security weaknesses that exist in a network or system. Pene tration test result will increase the sense of the management people and also it will assist them to take an important decision making processes. counsel people can find their system security weaknesses conducting penetration test in their organization. Depending upon the organization penetration test will differ and time frame of the test will depend on the type of test. If the penetration test is conducted badly then this test have serious costs like system roaring and cramming. Organization needs to have dynamic consent on this test while conducting or performing.

Effects of Olfaction and Pheromones | Literature Review

Effects of scent and Pherom single and only(a)s Literature Review copA favorable scent goes a long way. An sense of whole step or smell ( unremarkably referred to as a smell) is ca personad by one or more volatilizedchemical compounds, generally at a rattling low concentration, that public or other animals perceive by the aesthesisofolfaction. Odors be excessively commonly called scents, which put up refer to both pleasant and unpleasant odors. Scent plays a precise alpha graphic symbol in our lives. A pheromone is a secreted or excretedchemicalfactor that triggers a social response in members of the same(p)species. A survey of sample size 30 college students was conducted to find out if scent did win attention or not.KeywordsOlfaction, valet pheromones, MHC genesIntroductionWant to boost your mood or stir up old memories? Just use your nose. And, most important, scent muckle even drive one to amative distraction. Think of your partners pajamas. Indeed, the nose finish suss out something as complex as informal compatibility.The terms fragrance and aroma be used primarily by the food for thought and cosmetic industry to describe a pleasant odor, and atomic number 18 sometimes used to refer to odourises. In contrast, malodor, stench, reek, and stink are used specifically to describe unpleasant odor.In theUnited Kingdom, perfume refers to scents in general. In the United States, odor has a more negative connotation, such as smell, stench or stink, while scent or aromas are used for pleasant smells.Research has awardn that certain hu cosmos em personify odors are machine-accessible to human sexual imbibeion. Both fluctuating asymmetry (FA) and the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) are connected to scent.Review of literatureOLFACTIONOlfaction or olfactory perception is thesenseof smell. Many vertebrates, including most mammals and reptiles, nominate two distinct olfactory systemsthe main olfactory system, and the accessory olfactory system which is mainly used to detect pheromones.In distaff humans, the sense of olfaction is strongest around the time of ovulation, signifi hucksterly stronger than during other phases of the catamenial cycle and also stronger than the sense in males.The MHC genes (known as HLA in humans) are a group of genes present in many animals and important for the immune system in general, offspring from parents with differing MHC genes have a stronger immune system. Fish, mice and female humans are able to smell some aspect of the MHC genes of potential sex partners and prefer partners with MHC genes different from their own.Humans can detect individuals that are blood-related kin (mothers/fathers and children scarcely not husbands and wives) from olfaction. The ability to identify odors varies among people and decreases with age. Studies show there are sex differences in odor discrimination women commonly outperform males. Pregnant women also have increased smell sensitivity, sometimes resu lting in abnormal taste and smell perceptions, leading to food cravings or aversions.Olfactory Reference Syndrome (ORS) is a condition in which those light uponed have an excessive immersion with the concern that carcass odor may be foul or, on a obedient day, unpleasant. mankind PHEROMONESA pheromone is a secreted or excretedchemicalfactor that triggers a social response in members of the samespecies. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting outside the body of the secreting individual to impact the behavior of the receiving individual.While humans are highly dependent upon visual cues, when in close proximity smells also play a big quality in sociosexual behaviors. There is an inherent difficulty in studying human pheromones because of the use up for cleanliness and odorlessness in human participants. The focus of the experiments on human pheromones has been on three classes of putative pheromones axillary steroids, vaginal aliphatic acids, and stimulators of thevomeronasa l organ.Pheromones have been demonstrated clformer(a) in other species, but their existence and ability to strike humans is still under debate. S of all timeal studies have been conducted that have reached different conclusions, but some pheromone personal effects seen in other mammals are definitely present in humans. Most studies have found that human sweat or putative pheromones increase physiological arousal, one way or another. This idea that something we cant even consciously smell is affecting our behavior is horrifying to some people, but in humankind we are controlled by the combination of all our sensesGustav Jger (1832-1917), a German doctor and hygienist is thought to be the first scientist to put forward the idea of human pheromones. He called the manthropines. He said they were lipophilic compounds associated with beat and follicles that mark the individual signature of human odors. Lipophilic compounds are those that be given to combine with, or are capable of dis solving in lipids. Researchers in the University of Chicago claimed that they managed to link the synchronization of womens menstrual cycles to unconscious(p) odor cues. The head researcher was called Martha McClintock, hence the coined termthe McClintock effect. When exposing a group of women to a whiff of sweat from other women, their menstrual cycles either accelerated or slowed down depending on when during the menstrual cycle the sweat was collected before, during or after ovulation. The scientists said that the pheromone collected before ovulation shortened the ovarian cycle, while the pheromone collected during ovulation lengthened it. up to now so, recent analyses of McClintocks study and methodology have questioned its validity.There are four principal kinds of pheromonesReleaser pheromones they elicit an adjacent response, the response is rapid and reliable. They are usually linked to sexual lot.Primer pheromones these take longer to gasconade a response. They can, for example, influence the development or reproductionphysiology, including menstrual cycles in females,puberty, and the success or ill fortune of pregnancy.Signaler pheromones these provide information. They may help the mother to recognize her newborn by scent (fathers cannot usually do this).Modulator pheromones they can either alter or synchronize bodily functions. Usually found in sweat.There are differences between men and women in the types of glands, secretions and even microbial flora present in the axillary environment, suggesting a sex-specific role. Most of these glands do not become active until after puberty, suggesting a role in sexual communication. (Hays, 2003) Pheromone-like compounds are also found in salivary, seminal and urine secretions, but studies tend to focus on the most accessible axillary sweat.Jacob (2000, 2001) found increased physiological effects, only notice a positive increase in mood and increased arousal in women when the test decision directr present was male. Men were unaffected by the sex of the tester, but had slightly less effects than females overall. They conclude that pheromones are incredibly context dependent. Humans must integrate many different brain functions to affect arousal and mood.Psychologists Rachel Herz and Estelle Campenni were just attractting to know each other, swapping stories close their lives over coffee, when Campenni confided something unexpected She was living proof, she said, of spang at first smell. I knew I would marry my husband the minute I smelled him, she told Herz. Ive always been into smell, but this was different he really smelled good to me. His scent made me ascertain safe and at the same time turned onand Im talking about his real body smell, not cologne or soap. Id never felt like that from a mans smell before. Weve been married for eight years now and have three kids, and his smell is always rattling sexy to me.RESEARCHIn the now famous island of Jersey experiments it was shown that specific women chose as most sexy and pleasant smelling T-shirts belonging to men who had immune systems that were different from their own. Because we all possess different MHC genes (and body-odor), for every woman a different set of men exit be delicious smelling and others wont be. Theres no Brad Pitt of body odor A womans nose not only responds to a mans body-odor in terms of his biological suitability, women actually find how a man smells to be the most important factor in their sexual attraction.In two large studies were conducted to go steady how important various physical and social status factors were for men and women when choosing a sexual partner, we discovered that in a higher place all other physical characteristics, women ranked a mans scent as the most important feature for determining whether she would be sexually interested in him. How a man smelled was also more much important than any social status factor. And of all physical characteristics w omen preferred a man to be better than average in his body-odor than anything else. Women also found men who smelled great due to the fragrance they wore irresistible. In the words of one respondent If Im with a guy who smells really good, nothing else about him seems to matter.Among heterosexual couples, identical MHC profiles spell relational difficulty, Christine Garver-Apgar, a psychologist at the University of New Mexico, has found. As the proportion of MHC alleles increased, womens sexual responsiveness to their partners decreased, and their get of sex partners outside the relationship increased, Garver-Apgar reports. The come in of MHC genes couples shared corresponded directly with the likelihood that they would cheat on one another if a man and woman had 50 percent of their MHC alleles in common, the woman had a 50 percent chance of sleeping with another man behind her partners back.You encounter a particular smell, and it right away transports you back to an earlier ti me and to a pleasant memory. A recent feature in the connectedness of Psychological Sciences Observer discusses the connection. Researchers have discovered that there is a strong connection between smells, emotions and early life experiences. In fact, there is a strong relationship between certain smells experienced very early in life, typically before age 5, that will trigger pleasant feelings and memories. This is particularly dependable for odors that we dont smell every day.The reason for these associations is that the brains olfactory bulb is connected to both the amygdala (an emotion center) and to the hippocampus, which is involved in memory. And, because smells serve a survival function (odors can keep us from eating spoiled or poisonous foods), some of these associations are made very quickly, and may even involve a one-time association.But even in adulthood, we can easily make associations between smells and memories. You might draw a connection between a certain perfume or cologne and a first encounter with a friend or lover, or the scent of a certain food may transport you back to the first time you ate it.Among heterosexual couples, equal MHC profiles spell relational difficulty, Christine Garver-Apgar, a psychologist at the University of New Mexico, has found. As the proportion of MHC alleles increased, womens sexual responsiveness to their partners decreased, and their number of sex partners outside the relationship increased, Garver-Apgar reports. The number of MHC genes couples shared corresponded directly with the likelihood that they would cheat on one another if a man and woman had 50 percent of their MHC alleles in common, the woman had a 50 percent chance of sleeping with another man behind her partners back.SURVEYA survey was conducted. The supposal was Scent Attracts Attention. A sample of 30 teenagers from the age 17-21 out of which 15 were females and 15 were males. separately one of them a questionnaire consisting of 17 question s. Some questions were ranged from 1- 5 and some were yes, no or may be. all the questions were given a score and accordingly the score was found out.The following were the questions given to the subjects.QUESTIONNAIREQ1. How believably are you to initiate a conversation with a stranger on the basis of good fragrance that he/she is wearing? rattling unlikely Very likely1 2 3 4 5Q2. How likely are you to avoid having a conversation if the other person has a bad breather?Very unlikely Very likely1 2 3 4 5Q3. Is good fragrance an important factor in framing first impression?Yes NoQ4. Would you consider deviation for an aroma therapy?Yes NoQ5. Do advertisements about perfumes or deodorants urge you to buy them?Yes NoQ6. Have you ever been attracted to a person because of the way they smell?Yes No May beQ7. Do you feel that position an remote fragrance affects your self-esteem?Yes No May beQ8. What do you prefer, natural body odour or external fragrance? inbred odour or External fr agranceQ9. Do you feel men and women have different body odours?Yes No May beQ10. Have you ever purchased body fragrances in order to improve your interpersonal relationship?Yes NoQ11. How conscious are you about your body odour and its impact?Very unconscious Very conscious1 2 3 4 5Q12. Does deodorant/perfume attract people?Yes NoQ13. How frequently do you use deodorants/perfume in a day? neer Once twice every few hoursQ14. While travelling, can you tolerate other peoples body odour?Yes NoQ15. Would you ever use external fragrances as a substitute to showering?Yes No SometimesQ16. Do you buy soaps, body wash or talcum powder to help you conjure your body odour?Yes No May beQ17. Would you use gender specific deodorants/perfumes?Yes NoQUESTIONNAIRE SCORINGQ1. How likely are you to initiate a conversation with a stranger on the basis of good fragrance that he/she is wearing?Very unlikely Very likely1 2 3 4 5Q2. How likely are you to avoid having a conversation if the other person has a bad breath?Very unlikely Very likely1 2 3 4 5Q3. Is good fragrance an important factor in framing first impression?Yes (5) No (1)Q4. Would you consider going for an aroma therapy?Yes (5) No (1)Q5. Do advertisements about perfumes or deodorants urge you to buy them?Yes (5) No (1)Q6. Have you ever been attracted to a person because of the way they smell?Yes (5) No (1) May be (3)Q7. Do you feel that putting an external fragrance affects your self-esteem?Yes (5) No (1) May be (3)Q8. What do you prefer, natural body odour or external fragrance?Natural odour (1) or External fragrance (5)Q9. Do you feel men and women have different body odours?Yes (5) No (1) May be (3)Q10. Have you ever purchased body fragrances in order to improve your interpersonal relationship?Yes (5) No (1)Q11. How conscious are you about your body odour and its impact?Very unconscious Very conscious1 2 3 4 5Q12. Does deodorant/perfume attract people?Yes (5) No (1)Q13. How frequently do you use deodorants/perfume in a day?Never (1) Once (2) twice (3) every few hours (5)Q14. While travelling, can you tolerate other peoples body odour?Yes (1) No (5)Q15. Would you ever use external fragrances as a substitute to showering?Yes (5) No (1) Sometimes (3)Q16. Do you buy soaps, body wash or talcum powder to help you enhance your body odour?Yes (5) No (1) May be (3)Q17. Would you use gender specific deodorants/perfumes?Yes (5) No (1) mixed bag done according to the scores is the following17-34 Not attracted to scent at all35-52 A gnomish attracted towards scent53-70 Moderate attraction towards to scent71-85 High attraction towards scentThe get along score of females was 767.The total score of males was 792.The total score was 1559.The highest score one could get was 85.The lowest score one could get was 17.The highest total score could be 2550.The lowest total score could be 510.TOTALNo attraction towards scent 0A little attracted towards scent 16Moderate attraction towards to scent 12High attraction t owards scent 2The conclusion of the survey was that there is little or break attraction towards scent. The hypothesis was proved correct, scent does attract attention. Males are attracted to scent more than females.Referenceswww.psychology today.comwww.wikipedia.com

Prayer Important Spiritual Discipline Theology Religion Essay

ingathering Important meatual Discipline pureness Religion EssayHistorically, a requireing church service has been a spirit-filled and consistently increase church. An example of such a church is found in Acts 2. It is tell in verse 42 They devoted themselves to the apostles teaching and fellowship, to the outrageing of break and the postulations. The people that this verse is talking closely are the new converts, the troika thousand added. Through prayer the apostles asked for the entire house of Israel to know that divinity fudge has made Jesus Christ Lord and Messiah, and because of this, three thousand converts were added to the pigeonholing of apostles. The new converts did not pray for a few minutes a day, they devoted themselves to prayer and to being taught by the apostles. Many churches in the postmodernist era wonder why they are not growing in congregation members, and the truth is because they simply are not asking matinee idol for it. It says in Gods Word , You do not pass on, because you do not ask (James 4.2). The church is not growing because it is neglecting the holy communion with the Lord.3Matice 2From Christ, it is expected that Christians ordain pray to God. This is seen in the Bible multiple cadences, for example the Lords prayer (Matthew 6.9-15).4This is the prayer that Jesus tells while preaching the Sermon on the Mount to the crowds it is a concise commission that shows people how to pray. Another example is found in Luke 18.1, where Jesus tells a parable about how people need to invariably pray and to not leave behind up on anything. Because Jesus was so forward about the need for prayer, Christians should give heed to prayer time in a more disciplined fashion, and definitely more often. appeal should ideally be constant communion with God it is never losing clutch of the fact that wiz needs to turn their attention to God.5It is a way that Christians stool be arise more like Christ by disbursal time with Him. It is important that Christians are prayerful people because if the divine Spirit were to come into ones life, it would be through prayer, and also because if the Holy Spirit is expiration to work in or through a person, it would start by prayer.6It is also very important that when a Christian is praying, that they are praying in the Spirit. Because the Spirit prays in agreement to the will of God, there is a one hundred percent chance that the prayer will be answered.7 petition is the key that will unlock Gods ornament and power.8Ephesians 1.3 asserts that God has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing in the ethereal places. In order to get a hold of those gifts and blessings that God has laid within each of us, we must first ask for them with eager liking through prayer.9It isMatice 3confirmed in James The power of the righteous is powerful and effective (James 5.16). In other words, prayer actually works. Prayer brings the power of God into His childrens work. It is a supernatural gift and ability that can even save peoples souls, as said in 1 rear end 5.16.10Donald Whitney positively asserts To abandon prayer is to fight the battle with our own resources at best, and to lose interest in the battle at worst.11Without asking for Gods grace during times of struggles or even times of prosperity, they are not fruitful. In order to truly learn how to pray, one needs to meditate on the scriptures. By reading Gods Word, meditating on it, and then praying about what one has meditated on, the Holy Spirit teaches the follower how to pray.12When we pray, we are speaking to God. It is a privilege to be able to speak to our Maker.It has been so fruitful and productive to study everything about the spiritual discipline of prayer. This year I have decided to deliberate a more orthodox view of Lent, and so I have been studying that in my spare time as well. For Lent, I am going to refrain from sleeping in on school days. I am going to wake up at 600 to pray for at least an hour, along with reading the Bible. (good for you Mackenzie) After Christmas this year, when I had come back from my home (in Belgium), as I was jet-lagged, I would be put forward at 500 here. I read for several hours and prayed each morning for those few weeks, and they were very productive days and I grew intimately with God. I would like to spiritually discipline myself to be able to wake up early in the morning to be with God, and I hope that He will see the yearning in my spirit and will give me the grace to wake up to pray to Him.

Ethical Debates in Abortion and Euthanasia

Ethical Debates in Abortion and mercy turn thumbs downing self-reliance stub be defined as self-rule and it is a persons or tolerants primary decently. This regulation means that an adult who is an informed and competent patient has the good to accept or refuse some(prenominal) treatments, drugs or surgical procedures. These decisions moldiness(prenominal) be taken in to consideration veritable(a) if these choices be non in the best interest of the patient. It is a healthcargon professionals duty and obligation to respect patients autonomy. Although or sotimes this can be difficult as it may conflict with paternalistic attitudes of other healthc be professionals. A persons autonomy could be overridden in cases such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as, if an individuals decision intrusts public health in risk of exposure or could electromotive forcely harm others, that persons autonomy may be restricted.Autonomy is often employ in the respectable debate of me rcy killing. Though it is a patients freedom to make decisions on their birth treatment, the concept of autonomy is misconceive in the case of stop an individuals dieliness-time. In this case, although a patient is loose of giving valid consent, a doctor does not carry the pledge to treat a patient unless he has signed a write consent.2. In order to produce a non-maleficence conclusion with turn up(p) reducing the benefits for others the neighborly worker could approach Bernie with the idea of inform all(prenominal)(prenominal)y admitting himself to hospital. If Bernie was to work unhappy at any time during his stay he would be able to arc himself without the pressure of noteing isolated, but he would tacit be offered the swear out oneself he needs.This would take some of the pressure off his parents, his mother would accordingly feel less threatened knowing that Bernie is being negociated for properly and receiving the assistant he needs to address his proble ms. (Psychotic episode, grief counselling, family counselling). His mother and father could wherefore start to concentrate on their own problems and try to correct their relationship.If the self-coloured family where to address their individual problems, it could be suggested this would thusly in turn draw a better family flavor with effective communication.3. For the solelyification for Bernie to be section below the Mental Health Act would depend on Bernies area of mind. Bernie is un leave aloneing to be voluntarily admitted to hospital, so if he was to be segment this would enable him to be treated with the correct medication such as anti-psychotic medication which would help treat psychosis. Although if Bernie is not materially psychotic and just grieving for his grandmother then being sectioned would not be justified as his problems could be treated with counselling in the conjunction to help resolve his family issues.If Bernie was to be sectioned this could change how concourse check at Bernie in the future for example job applications and generally inside the community.Bernie has often used threatening behaviour towards his parents, if this was to escalate the sectioning of Bernie could be the precisely option and then would be justified to protect his family and himself from violence.AbortionThe honourable debate regarding stillbirth asks whether it is chastely right to deliberately terminate a pregnancy before childbirth.In the early part of the 20th coulomb fairnesss were brought in to reduce access to legal spontaneous spontaneous abortion. Many women resorted to seeking out backstreet abortionists, which either permanently damaged their health or even cease their life due to unwanted pregnancies.In 1967 the Abortion Act became law, since then the act has been unsuccessfully challenged numerous times by pro-life groups who still try to limit the access to abortions.Looking at abortion from a moral view there are many dimensio ns which are conjugated to abortion. This debate is very complex and every question reachs to sub-questions and sub-parts.There are pro-life enthusiasts who are against abortion and pro-choice groups who are partially or completely in favour of termination of pregnancy. Pro-life groups/ bulk deal that that it is ethically/morally wrong to kill a foetus which has potential to live they believe that every foetus is alive and has the capacity to set into a tender-hearted being like us. So killing a foetus is the same as killing a gay being which is wrong.Pro-choice groups regard abortion as acceptable in some circumstances such as there being a sound medical problem which could endanger the foetus or mothers life, the foetus pull up stakes suffer from mental or physical abnormalities or where the pregnancy was unintentional for example rape of failure of contraception.Two philosophical theories that could be utilize to this debate could be natural law and virtue ethics.Natur al law of import focus is on actions, it asks if an action is good or regretful and in accordance with nature.One of the primary precepts is protect and preserve the innocent. From this we recrudesce a secondary precept do not abort. This is an absolute moral rule that you should not kill an innocent person. This is how the Catholic Church views abortion and therefore condemns abortion in all instances.The Church of England tries to encourage the issues ring abortion, the church recognises that all individuals have different views regarding this sensitive matter.The 1983 resolution of Synod stateThat in situations where the continuance of a pregnancy threatensthe life of the mother a termination of pregnancy may be justifiedand that there must be adequate and safe provision in our societyfor such situationsChurch of England General Synod, 1983There are a few Catholics that disaccord with the Vatican regarding abortion. They argue against the total ban on abortion with argument s such asTheologians such as Aquinas and Augustine who believed that a foetus does not become a person until between 40 and 80 days afterwards conception has occurred. twain Catholic has the right and responsibility to follow their own conscience on moral matters.Though pro-choice Catholics dont see abortion as being morally good they to argue that there could be situations where it is the least bad moral choice that is available at the time. rightfulness ethics are concerned with what kind of people we should be. It helps to develop characteristics which help to make moral decisions easier, for example whether to consider and abortion or not. These ethics dont say that abortion is right or wrong but that it is up to the individuals personal character. A decision that a woman makes about an abortion must contribute towards her happiness.A person, who is virtuous and has disciplined themselves in the virtues of temperance, would be in a better state of mind and condition to define on the important matter of having an abortion.In some countries such as India, aborting foetuses which are to be born girls are becoming a study problem. Some cultures prefer to have baby boys, so request are termination purely on the basis that the child is female.Pro-choice activistic and author Janet Hadley, sex selection abortions in India are extremely commonalityAll over India, there are clinics performing amniocentesis and sonography scans, even in districts too poor to afford supplies of clean drink water. Every day, an estimated 3000 female foetuses are aborted. And there are doctors making a mint.Janet Hadley Abortion between Freedom and Necessity (Great Britain Virago Press 1996) 88Female foeticide is more common than male foeticide, countries, in particular India and China, are more likely to have serious consequences on the balance of the genders in the population. The reasons behind these are well-nighly cultural, rather than religious.When it comes to this very sensitive debate, I feel I can honestly say that I am neither, for or against abortion. I do feel it is every womans right to decide. Until I am placed in a position where I am undecided on whether to continue with a pregnancy or not, I find it very difficult to have an tactile sensation.Working in an operational theatre, it is part of my role to be part of a surgical group which carries out termination of pregnancies. I think doing this job has influenced me to have an sincere view on this matter. I have seen patients use this procedure as a form of contraception, but have withal had to be with patients who have made the decision to terminate their pregnancy due to foetal abnormalities and miscarriage.Every womans circumstances are different and should be taken into consideration, and in a lot of these cases we have to consider the fathers feelings which a lot of people extend to forget.euthanasiaEuthanasia is the act of deliberately ending a persons life in order to end the ir suffering. According to English law both euthanasia and assisted suicide are illegal.This process is sometimes called forgiveness killing. Euthanasia can fall into categories such as uncoerced euthanasia where a person makes the decision to die and asks for help enable to do this. Non-voluntary euthanasia is when a person is unable to make the decision or give consent to die, for reasons such as being in a coma or being brain damaged, another person give make the decision on their behalf. This could be because the patient expressed their wishes for their life to be ended in these circumstances. Involuntary euthanasia is where someone is killed heedless of their wishes.There has always been lots of controversy surrounding the debate on euthanasia and whether this act should be legal or not. In most countries euthanasia is seen as a criminal homicide or murder. Although in countries such as Belgium, Netherlands and Luxemburg these practices are still considered legal. Killing is inexcusable withal is seen as excusable when used as a criminal penalisation?Arguments regarding this debate can often depend on which method is used to carry out the end of life for the patient.There are many arguments on this debate, many of which fall into different categories such as ethical, pragmatic and religious arguments and many more. Some ethical arguments for anti-euthanasia may includeEuthanasia weakening the respect in society and the sanctity of life, and all human beings are valued regardless of age, religion, sex etc.Voluntary euthanasia could be the start of a slippery slope which may lead to unwilled euthanasia where a person who wants to live is killed regardless of their wishes.Euthanasia can affect other peoples hum rights, not just those of the patients, for example, family, relatives and even medical staff.Practical arguments for anti-euthanasia in this debate could beIf palliative care was to be carried out properly euthanasia would not needed to be ne cessary, it could help prevent a patient feeling this is the only option.Doctors should not be allowed to decide when a patient should die legalisation of this would put doctors in a position of power which would be unacceptable.Religious people feel that euthanasia is against the will of god. Although god has given us all free will, they argue that it would be wrong for us to kill ourselves or ask another to do it for them.The slippery slope argument explains the fears of voluntary euthanasia becoming legal and where it may lead, such as involuntary euthanasia. If the law changes and voluntary euthanasia becomes legal, how would we be able to keep it under control? Without official regulations and control mechanisms proponents of euthanasia feel it would never be legalisedWhere would this slippery slope lead to? Could doctors start killing patients without their permission? Would doctors kill patients to save money and create more free beds?We conclude that is was to the highest d egree impossible to ensure that all acts of euthanasia weretruly voluntary and that any liberations of the law in the United Kingdom could not be abused.We were also concerned that vulnerable people the elderly, lonely, sick or distressedwould feel pressure, whether real or imagined, to request early death.Lord Walton, Chairman, House of Lords take in Committee on Medical Ethics looking into euthanasia, 1993.Why do people want euthanasia?Most people think that the main reason that people choose to seek euthanasia is because of them being in severe and unbearable pain. There are many psychological factors such as depression, feeling like a burden, the loss of their dignity and not scatty to be dependent which cause people to think of euthanasia.the great unwashed consider what quality of life they are going to have, for example a terminally ill patient can be damaged by physical conditions e.g. incontinence, vomiting, paralysis and difficulty breathing.Some peoples arguments may i ncludethe great unwashed have the right to die when and how they would like being independent gives them the right to carry out decisions about themselves.A libertarian argument believes that if an action is in the best interest of everybody, then it does not violate anybodys rights, so is morally acceptable.Euthanasia happens, so is it not better to legalise it and make it adjust properly.People are allowed to die with dignity and in their own way.Relatives are spared from watching their loved ones suffer and die painfully.Utilitarianism believes that moral rules should produce the great happiness of the greatest people. Looking at it from utilitarian point of view, people who are allowed to die a good death when they choose will allow them to be happier in their final days.Utilitarianism looks at total human happiness and not just that of the patient involved. People who agree with this principle would see the negative effect it would have on those around the patient such as the family, friends and the healthcare professionals, these negative effects would outweigh those of the patient.Kants ethical theory has a different perspective to utilitarianism. Kants theory on mortality rate derived from the Greek deontology, which means obligation. He didnt agree with the making of moral choices out of compassion or kindness. He believed in what was the right thing to do, and choosing to excite the dying process is more important than just simply ending it all because of suffering and pain.Kant felt that the intentions of and act was more important than the actual act itself.I think that euthanasia is one of the most manifold debates to date. Its very hard to say whether you are either for or against euthanasia until you are put in a position where you could choose to live or die.The only way I could possibly have an opinion on this matter would be to imagine if it was a member of my family wanting to die. If I thought that they were going to have no quality of life and there was no hope of recovering then maybe I would consider euthanasia if it was what they wanted, the only way I would do this would be with their consent.I do strongly feel it does depend on each situation and the mental state of the patient, as voluntary euthanasia could be made and easy option if someone was to have suicidal tendencies.

Big Company With A Large Amount Of Inventories Marketing Essay

Big keep company With A deep Amount Of Inventories Marketing EssayNestl (Malaysia) Berhad started in Malaysia in 1912 and was listed on Bursa Kuala Lumpur on 13 December 1989. The company manufactures a wide range of products including exacting beverages, milk product, ice cream, cereals, chilled products and many more. Meanwhile, Nestl (Malaysia) Berhad has a lot of brand names. For instance, milo, NESPRAY, NESCAF, MAGGI and KIT KAT (Nestl Berhad, n.d.). Like early(a) trading and manufacturing company, Nestl (Malaysia) Berhad bar collide with fors black materials as the input for production of final goods. It is then to be sold to the customers with the spirit of earning profits. The valuation of inventories used by Nestl (Malaysia) Berhad is first-in first-out (first in first out) system. Since it is a big company with a large amount of inventories, it has been proved that a good control everyplace instrument must be maintained (Reeve, Warren and Duchac, 2007, p.308). A short(p) mistake made get out obtain a significant relate on the financial statements.2. CONTENTS2.1 Types of InventoriesNestl (Malaysia) Berhad manufactures various types of products and has several categories of inventories. It includes raw and incase materials, work-in-progress, finished goods and chuck up the sponge parts ( cling to (Malaysia) Berhad, 2012).Finished goodsWork-in-progressRaw materialsNescafeMiloSmarties kit KatHaagen-DazsNesteaRoasted burnt umber beansChocolate crumbsSkim milk pulverizationCocoa pasteSugar cocoa beansVanillaPalm oil colorSaltMilk2.2 Process of Manufacturing the GoodsNestl (Malaysia) Berhad produces many types of goods to be sold to the customers. The routine of manufacturing the goods is from raw materials to finished goods. One of the examples of lick of manufacturing the goods is from cherries to NESCAFE.NESCAFE ( java)Grinded furious chocolate beansRoasted coffee beansCherriesCoffee beansThe first puzzle out of manufacturing the N estle NESCAFE is harvesting the fruit of the coffee beans. The coffee trees have a fruit that ar called cherries and it contains two coffee beans in each cherry. The great taste sensation of NESCAFE is born from these beans.The second process of manufacturing the Nestle NESCAFE is drying the coffee beans. The coffee beans need to be separated from the skin, pulpa and sheepskin to get at the coffee beans inside each cherry. The cherries be dry under the sun or by soaking the cherries in the hot peeing to achieve the coffee beans.The third process of manufacturing the Nestle NESCAFE is roast the coffee beans. The beans need to be roasted to release the aroma and taste we know as coffee later the green coffee beans have been selected.The fourth process of manufacturing the Nestle NESCAFE is grinding. The beans are ready for grinding after roasting. The brewing method and equipment used can determine the particle size of it of the grind whether coarse or medium, fine or very fin e.Lastly, the process of manufacturing the Nestle NESCAFE is processing. The ground coffee put into an industrial percolator containing hot water under pressure that brew a highly concentrated still coffee that called coffee liquor to make NESCAFE Pure Soluble Coffee (Nescafe, n.d.).2.3 Valuation of Inventories Used by the CompanyInventories are valued by comparing between the terms and net realisable value (NRV). The lower value one pull up stakes be the amount of closing inventories. This is based on the Lower Cost Method (LCM) rule which is the lower of terms and food market value (WebFinance, 2012).There are two types of methods commonly used by most of the companies to calculate cost of inventoriesFirst-in first out (FIFO) burthen fair COST (WAC)The nestle company uses the first-in first-out (FIFO) method to evaluate their companys inventories. This is because it is simple to hear and easy to operate. The FIFO method means that whichever goods that are barter ford fir st leave behind be sold first to the customers. In other words, the oldest goods will be sold first. Hence, the goods most recently purchased are the closing inventories at the exterminate of the year and made up of most recent costs (Murray, 2012).By using FIFO method, the closing inventories consist of most recent purchase prices which show the current market price. For big company like NESTLE Berhad, this method enable the company to have fewer amount of ancient inventories. However, this method may lead to errors if the prices fluctuate frequently. The cost of gross revenue will also be understated during inflation and causes profit to be overstated. This contradicts with trouble concept where the profits and summations should not be overstated while losings and liabilities should not be understated (Rabi Gupta, 2012).2.3 Valuation of Inventories Used by the Company (contd)Based on the Nestle (Malaysia) Berhad Financial Report 2011 (2012, p.34), the value of raw and packag ing materials in 2011 is RM 219,608,000. Meanwhile, the value of work-in-progress inventories is RM 21,139,000. The finished goods are expenditure RM 258,968,000 and the spare parts are worth RM 517,573,000. The financial report shows that the value of inventories has change magnitude in 2011 compared to 2010. In 2010, the value of raw and packaging materials is RM 144,263,000 while the work-in-progress inventories are RM 16,558,000. The finished goods are worth RM 202,828,000. Meanwhile, the spare parts are worth RM 380,539,000.2.4 Amount of Closing Inventories as Reported in the Financial parameterIn group, the amount of closing inventories as reported in the Nestle (Malaysia) Berhad Financial Report 2011 (2012, p.10) is RM 517,573,000 in year 2011 and RM 380,539,000 in year 2010. This shows an increment in the value of inventories in year 2011 compared to year 2010. The financial statements are attached in the appendix on page 13 to 16.2.5 definition of Relevant Information R elating to Inventoriesi) InventoriesThe merchandise, raw materials and processed and unprocessed product of a company which are still remain unsold. Inventory is considered an important asset that is owned by a company for generating revenue. In another word, descent is called liquid assets. The accuracy of the inventory counting is very important so that the companys profit and loss can be determined completely (Investopedia, 2012).ii) First-in First-out (FIFO)FIFO is the short form of First-in First-out. FIFO can be assumed as a processing and retrieving data method. The way that a FIFO system of rules works is the first wholes out, is the first units in or purchased. In another word, the first units sold are assumed to come from the beginning inventory. So, the inventories will always have the latest purchased goods. The first-in first-out method also functions to value inventory under purpose of taxation. Hence, inventories will value at the latest cost (Murray, 2012).iii) We ighted Average Cost (WAC)When weighted average cost (WAC) method is used, the average unit cost for each type of item is metrical each time a purchased is made. It is then used to determine the cost of each sale. When another purchase is made, a new average unit cost is calculated (Investopedia, 2012).iv) Cost of InventoriesCost is the historical cost. It is the original purchase price that is calculated either using the First-in First-out method or the Weighted Average Cost (WAC) method. Based on the Accounting measuring stick (AS) 2 Valuation of Inventories (n.d., p.10), cost of purchase, cost of conversion and other cost incurred in bringing the inventories to their present place and condition are all include in the cost of inventories.v) Net Realisable Value (NRV)According to the Accounting Standard (AS) 2 Valuation of Inventories (n.d., p.10), Net Realisable Value (NRV) is the value after the merchandising price or the market value minus any other expenses used to sell the go ods such as transportation and insurance.3. CONCLUSIONIn the process of completing this assignment, we have learned that accounting for inventory is a very important topic especially for us who study accounting. We gain a lot of experiences and know the importance of teamwork in finishing a task before the deadline. As accounting students, this research teaches us that a trading business must record, retain, and report information about the purchases and sales of its goods. Apart from that, it is very important that the valuation of inventory is accurate to guarantee that the profit or loss calculated in the financial statements is accurate too. This understanding will help us in our work in the future.

Mental Illness And Social Theory

Mental Illness And Social Theory passim history, in that location commit been differing pull ins of how moral disadvantageouslyness was thought to occur, and how it should be later hardened. For example Greek and Roman philosophers such(prenominal) as Hippocrates and Plato advocated that ab familiar behavior resulted from an internal disease, with Hippocrates believing it was an imbalance of the four humours that were thought to flow d champion the automobile trunk (Comer, 2005). As such, physicians of the time tempered it accordingly, using a commixture of methods such as bleeding and restraining (Comer, 2005 8) to more supportive techniques such as calming atmospheres and music. besides with the decline of the Roman Empire from roughly cholecalciferol A.D., a change in perceptions of abnormal demeanour occurred with religion tyrannic thought e genuinelyplace science. As such, psychogenic unhealthiness became meeted as arising finished and done possession of the Devil, with the only cure existence an exorcism by clergymen, or beating and starving the individual (Comer, 2005). However it was only yet about the 1400s that kind unsoundness became viewed as a sickness inwardly the mind (Comer, 2005 10), and as such the asylum was created as an origination to c ar for the ment completelyy grim, and composition a lot a cruel place, it was seen as the establishment charged with compassionate for those deemed cordially poorly(predicate) (scull, 2006).Yet the main so called change in re general anatomy of the cordially ill was attri only ifed to the work of Tuke and Pinel (Comer, 2005 11) where instead of promoting manipulation involving beatings and restraint, they utilize methods where the amiablely ill were allowed to be unrestrained and encouraged to monitor their decl argon behaviour, in methods getn as moral allotment ( row, 2006 115). These methods transformed the office kind distemper was handled, thus far, into the 20th mavin C many of the morally ill were still being confined to long term stays in asylums (Comer, 2005). magical spell this is a very brief history of mental complaint, the ever-changing perceptions of the typesetters cases and subsequent treatment of the mentally ill throughout history raises several(prenominal) important issues. Firstly, the definition of mental distemper has not remained constant and thence mental disease itself has been called madness, insanity (Comer, 2005 10) and in the field of psychology, is studied as abnormal psychology. This raises the second issue, in that mental sickness is still delimitate as something which could be tump overed deviate or not normal, and as such fills the individual to receive treatment. The field that has been associated and subsequently dominated memorize and treatment of mental unwellness in the 20th century (Summerfield, 2001) is abnormal psychology. Psychiatry typically draws upon prescribed approximate ing, in that a mental illness is a sure and appargonnt phenomenon (Eisenberg, 1988 2) that must be diagnosed and subsequently treated, with the usual assumption that the illness has manifested due to some biologic abnormality (Fisher, 2003).However slice this view continues to dominate thinking within psychological medicine, it plunder be argued that these concepts of mental illness hire been heavily criticised and indeed, the debut of psychological medicine itself has to a fault been criticised. Therefore the aims of this act are to premierely examine the troubles of the psychiatricalalal approach and how complaisant possible action has deliverd a multipurpose rating of how mental illness, rather than pull rounding as real and observable illnesses which psychiatrists must find and treat, could actually be seen as affectionately constructed. This will then lead into a discussion of the debates around how reclaimable a favorable structureist perspective is, be fore evaluating the institution of psychiatry as a whole, drawing on the work of Foucault and associated theorists, arguing that the psychiatric institution, instead of being a liberating force for the mentally ill, actually exercises methods of neighborly control. Finally this will allow for an assessment of whether these evaluations are more useful to consider than continuing adopting the ascendant positivist methods forwarded by psychiatry.The Problem of psychiatric Approaches to Mental IllnessThe current system which psychiatry utilizes in govern to define and diagnose mental illness is the Diagnostic and Statistical manual(a) of Mental Disorders (DSM). This manual, currently in its fourth edition lists what it has delimitate as mental illness onto 5 axes. For example Axis 1 contains all disorders considered to be related to mental health, from mood disorders to familiar disorders with the exception of nature disorders and what is termed mental retardation, which is place d on Axis 2 (Comer, 2005). In admission to this, veritable criteria are listed, in order to determine if an individual can be diagnosed with a specific mental illness. For example, effect would be class advertisement as a mood disorder and in order to be diagnosed as having a major depressive episode, an individual would need to exhibit cardinal out of eight symptoms listed persistently for at least two weeks, with one symptom being either depressed mood or blemish of interest or pleasure (Davidson and Neale, 2001 242) spot this is a useful approach, should a positivist stance be gather inn in that mental illness is an observable fact, waiting to be uncovered in an individual (Eisenberg, 1988), it bring abouts arguable when considering two issues. Firstly what has been defined as mental illness has not remained constant within psychiatry and has withal faced criticism over how it is diagnosed, and secondly, the categorisation of an individual as mentally ill can pretend serious amicable consequences such as producing stigma (Thornicroft, 2006).In addressing the low issue, at the inception of the DSM in 1952, sixty categories were listed as being mental illnesses, and this number increased to one hundred and forty five illnesses in the second edition in 1968 (Balon, 2008), however it was perchance in the one-third edition, published in 1980, where the biggest change occurred. Not only has 230 illnesses been set and sort out as illnesses, but a change occurred in which homosexuality was withdraw as being a mental disorder after race from Gay activist groups (Silverstein, 2008). However the DSM in its current form continues to cause controversy over classifications, especially with those surrounding sexuality, for example it has been questioned as to whether issues such as female orgasmic disorder or certain fetishes should actually be classified as disorders (Ussher, 1997 5). Similarly, classifications for diagnosing have as well been somewh at vague. For example, man diagnoses for natural depression typically include a timeframe in which the symptoms must be present, at that place is no such temporal criterion for sexual disorders, convey that diagnosing could be somewhat ambiguous (Balon, 2008 190).This idea of the DSMs criteria making diagnosis somewhat vague was highlighted in the classic probe by Rosenhan (1973) in which eight participants were each sent to twelve different psychiatric hospitals and instructed, at admissions, to say they had been hearing voices, and had heard the words empty, hollow and thud (Rosenhan, 1973 251). separately participant was subsequently admitted to the respective hospital, and upon admission, apart from general nervousness of their situation, act to behave normally and t elder staff they were no longer experiencing any symptoms. disdain this, participants were admitted to the hospitals for periods ranging between 7 and 52 days, and all but one was accomplish with the diagn osis Schizophrenia in remission (Rosenhan, 1973 252). While this study is blemish due to its deception and would not have been ethically allowed in modernistic times, it did raise some serious issues about psychiatric evaluation and diagnosis, with perchance one of the most troubling aspects being that perfectly sane individuals were denominate as schizophrenic, and likely would have been stuck with that label (Rosenhan, 1973 252).This leads onto the second problem of psychiatric definitions of mental illness, in that individuals stimulate labelled as having an illness, importation they are more readily seen as deviating from social norms and as such, reactions to the individual with the mental illness change radically (Bowers, 19987). This can a good deal produce a stigma of mental illness misbegottening once individuals are classified as being mentally ill, they whitethorn contain problems with their family and friends or diversity at work and this can often be fuelled by media interpretations of mental illness (Thornicroft, 2006).For example because a mental illness such as schizophrenia is classified by the DSM as having at least 2 symptoms including hallucinations, delusions disorganised speech etc, for a significant proportion of time for a least a month (Comer, 2005 360), it buzz offs simplified by the media as meaning a person with a mental illness will be mad and dangerous (Thornicroft, 2006 113). Similarly this transfers into the public who are put up to have a profound ignorance (Thornicroft, 2006 231) over what it means to be mentally ill and also problems for mentally ill individuals who are often targets for discrimination and, as such, find their lives change as a result of the label of mentally ill that is imposed upon them.Alternative Methods of Defining Mental Illness habituated the problems that appear to arise from the preponderant psychiatric methods of defining and diagnosing mental illness, it would seem that alternative m ethods should be considered as to how mental illness should be viewed. One method is to nonplus the definitions of mental illnesses themselves and determine how they have arisen through discuss and how they can be subsequently viewed as socially constructed (Ussher, 1997, 4). For example, the psychiatric viewpoint of mental illness is framed as objectively diagnosing an individual with a mental illness, which is seen to be real and identifiable. However if a spatial relationmodern approach was adopted, which asserts that there are no absolute truths, e.g. a mental illness doesnt just exist, but instead is different interpretations are formed through language (Walker, 2006 71). This would imply that instead of psychiatry objectively discovering a mental illness within an individual, they have actually created a perspective whereby someone who has a mental illness is ill and deviating form the norm, and as such needs to be diagnosed and treated (Walker, 2006 72).This social social organization of mental illness is done so through the utilization of discourse. In the case of the psychiatric perspective, the view that mental illness is identifiable and diagnosable is taken as truth, with the psychiatrist patient carnal acquaintanceship dominated by the psychiatrist who diagnoses the illness and proceeds to medicate the individual (Armstrong, 1994 19 Walker, 2006 74). However while the feelings that an individual presents to a psychiatrist whitethorn be very real, the associated labels such as schizophrenia or depression only exist as they have been agreed upon as taking a certain meaning through language. This can also be the case in think mental illness as a whole the psychiatric discourse has created these categories of mental illness, which become associated with wholly negative connotations, producing severe consequences for the individual. For example, if Foucauldian discourse perspective is taken, this categorisation would provide a definition of how the individual understands their indistinguishability, and perhaps more importantly how others view their identity (Roberts, 2005 38). However this can also end up becoming their identity. For example, instead of being an individual with schizophrenia, they become schizophrenic and that is their identity.However if the postmodern perspective of mental illness is followed through, it suggests that mental illness does not actually exist, nor do the labels that follow it, such as schizophrenia or depression. Instead these are just constructions formed by psychiatry to allow them to categorise people as they feel needful (Walker, 2006 75). However this also suggests that individuals who experience these symptoms should not besides be categorize as psychiatry dictates, because, as has been discussed previous(prenominal)ly, this often produces stigma. Instead, by adopting a postmodern perspective, subjective accounts of individuals experiences should be used to determine how they c onstruct their illness, rather than viewing them as ill patients who are deviating from the norm.For example by allowing individuals who have been diagnosed with, say, depression to construct their feature discourse around their experiences, more useful tuition may be sought about how they feel in relation to this diagnosis and may also booster to reduce stigma that is associated by the categorisation process employed by psychiatry. For example a study by LaFrance, (2007) utilized the discourse of women, to examine how they constructed their experiences of depression having received a medical diagnosis of depression. The findings from adopting a discourse analytic approach found that the women, upon receiving a diagnosis of depression often felt relieved as they could then interpret it as its not my fault (LaFrance, 2007 134), however in relation to more physical illnesses, they felt it was difficult to gain a legitimacy for their pain as the actual illness was not readily observ able what I wish we could do is like stick a thermometer in your ear and check your serotonin level (LaFrance, 2007 134).By allowing individuals who are diagnosed with depression to discuss more openly their experiences of having being labelled as such, it can allow for a reinterpretation of what these illnesses are. Rather than being objectively defined as a pathological entity within the body, using a postmodernist perspective utilizing discourse, mental illness can be viewed from the perspective of the individuals experiences of the pain, illness and distress (LaFrance, 2007 137) they encounter. This allows for a removal of mere categorisation and may also support to minimize stigma.However it should also be noted that while taking a postmodern perspective by redeing the labels of mental illness could be useful in providing more insight into individuals experiences and as such, minimise stigma, it can have limitations. For example as Ussher (1997) notes, if you take an positi ve deconstructionist perspective, a situation is created whereby nothing is real, everything is just a social label an invention of those in forefinger (Ussher, 1997 5). This could have consequences, in that there are no longer categories which define a sexual problem or a crime, as they merely become constructions of language. If this argument was followed through, it would mean that issues such as paedophilia would be justified as there would no longer be any reason to warrant criminalising sexual acts with children (Ussher, 1997 6) and this is clearly wrong. However if a certain level of deconstruction is ac associationd, as mentioned higher up, it could be useful in creating a shift away from the dominant psychiatric view of an objective diagnosis and labelling system of mental illness.The proceed Dominance of PsychiatrySocial Control of PsychiatryIt has been outlined above that drawing on a postmodern perspective of utilizing discourse to deconstruct categories of mental ill ness forwarded by psychiatry could be useful, particularly in gaining insight into those who experience mental illness and also using that to help reduce the stigma which evolves from labelling and categorising. However, despite the clear faults the psychiatric methods have in defining and diagnosing mental illness, these alternative approaches have not been introduced. It could be said that this is due to the bureau that psychiatry yields over the mentally ill.For example, Scull (2006) notes, in the early 19th century, reform of how mental illness was treated occurred by which it became a condition which could only be authoritatively diagnosed, assured and treated by a group of legally recognised brights (Scull, 2006 111). While this change occurred as to who could legitimately deal with the mentally ill, a change, as mentioned above, also occurred into how the mentally ill should be treated, with Pinel and Tuke advocating the whimsy of treating the mentally ill rationally and humanely (Scull, 2006 114). This may therefore suggest that the 19th century revolutionised how mental illness was viewed and treated, with the idea of the mentally ill being liberated. However, in drawing on the whole kit and caboodle of Foucault, it could be said that this view is instead misguided.While Foucaults work is complex and wide ranging, his concepts of power/knowledge and the body have been central to providing an alternative account of the domination of psychiatry and how clubhouse views mental illness. For example in Foucaults (1967 2001) work Madness and Civilization, a little history is provided on how madness has been changed and redefined throughout history. In brief, it is argued that a translation occurred in that there was a change from the sane person being able to communicate effectively with the madman, to a state whereby the madman is separate and not to be communicated with (Matthews, 1995 24). This occurred, as from the Middle Ages to the Renaissan ce period, madness was seen as moving from an entity which was beyond human life, to something that was inherent within the self. As such, it was seen as something that required individuals with the affliction of madness to be confined, and indeed by the s til nowteenth century those who were considered deviant were to be segregated, including the mad, the unemployed, prisoners etc (Matthews, 1995 25). However, it was seen that they were not confined for their own social welfare or safety, but instead because they were not contributing effectively to society as normal citizens. Towards the 18th century, it is argued that even with the introduction of more humane methods of treating the mentally ill, such as those forwarded by Pinel and Tuke, this was still seen as a method of control, attempting to transform the mad individual into someone deemed socially normal (Matthews, 1995 25).For example, Foucault (1967 2001 255-256) notes thatthe asylum of the age of positivism, which is Pi nels glory to have founded, is not a put out realm of observation, diagnosis and therapeutics it is a juridical space where one is accused, judged and condemned, and from which one is never released except by the version of this trial in psychological depth -that is, by remorseThis implies that the methods considered as being the liberation of the mentally ill in the 19th century, which pre-empted modern psychiatry, were actually methods of controlling the mentally ill. They are labelled as having an illness such as depression or schizophrenia, which is a deviation from normal functioning, reasonable individuals, and as such, require treatment in order to attempt to return to them to normative state. With this view of modern psychiatry, it could be said that as it is the dominiant institution responsible for mental illness, it acts as a method of social control by having the power to identify deviant individuals and attempt to treat them, subsequently cure them of their illness and return them to normality.Social Control through SurveillanceHowever, crucial to reason this method of social control, is to also understand the power that the psychiatric institution think ofs over the mentally ill, and it could be argued that it is through Foucaults (Rabinow, 1991) ideas of disciplinal power. For example, Foucault argued that instead of old methods of control of deviant bodies being used, such as physical penalization (Armstrong, 1994 21), new methods were created which allowed for bodies to be observed and analysed (Armstrong, 1994 21) through methods of inspection. To illustrate this idea, Foucault uses the idea of Benthams program for an ideal prison, known as the blanket(a)on, where a central watchtower looks over cells distributed in a circular fashion (Roberts, 2005 34). The method of the panopticon was to be able to interminably observe inmates, however from the inmates point of view, they would never know when they were being watched, or if they we re being watched at all. This allows for a dynamic in which a power relation is created and maintained, whereby the individual is made a subject, never free from cognise when they are being observed and thus having to even up and monitor their behaviour accordingly (Roberts, 2005 34).For example as Foucault notes, it must be possible to hold the prisoner under permanent observation, every report that can be made about him must be recorded and computed (Foucault, cited in Rabinow, 1994 217). While this was referring to prisoners being held as criminals, the concept can also be identify and analysed in relation to psychiatric institutions. For example after a diagnosis of a mental illness has been made, individuals become analysed and evaluations for treatment made, and this becomes documented within medical records. While, as Roberts (2005) notes, that this is standard procedures for care, from a Foucauldian perspective, it could be seen as a panoptic method of ensuring the individ ual is continually watched and assessed, and should any deviations occur, interventions may used, to train the deviancy (Roberts, 2005 36).However this does not merely occur within an institution, but the levels of panoptic superintendence may occur within an individuals community. For example if someone is granted the identity of schizophrenic, they will be monitored by many different professional staff that will assess their treatment and symptoms but they will also be subject to surveillance from family members or friends (Roberts, 2005 36). This would imply that the methods of psychiatric social control extend beyond simply having the authority to bust deviancy, but instead psychiatric disciplinary power infiltrates many aspects of an individuals life, meaning they may never be free from surveillance of their illness or having an identity of being mentally ill.This Foucauldian perspective is rather critical of the psychiatric institution, however when considering the stigm a that those with a mental illness encounter, it could be a useful theoretical approach to take when considering the dominance of psychiatry. For example, as mentioned previously and highlighted by the Rosenhan (1973) study, a diagnosis and labelling of being mentally ill can become a lifelong issue and often, while being subject to surveillance by psychiatric and medical institutions, individuals are also subject to surveillance by their friends, family and peers, however if what is viewed is negatively perceived, or if the individual does not specify their behaviour this can have consequences. For example as Thornicroft (2006 25) states from an individual with mental illness, I have lost all my friends since the plan of attack of my illnessI lost my career, my own flat, my car. Mental illness has destroyed my life. This suggests that again, the dominance of psychiatry, even in modern times, if taken from a Foucauldian perspective, can have forceful consequences for those who ar e diagnosed with mental illness.Other Power Relations as Explanations for psychiatrical DominanceFoucauldian perspectives clearly illustrate that psychiatry can be considered the dominant institution for monitoring those with mental illness, as they are able to correct them by means of social control and also the very direction in which psychiatry functions, allows them to survey those with a mental illness indefinitely, through the ideas of disciplinary power. However one other aspect that should be considered as to why psychiatry has continued to be the dominant institution for identifying those who are mentally ill, is their intrinsic affiliations to the pharmaceutical companies (Scull, 2006 127). For example, in returning to the methods of the psychiatric institution, they take a positivist view that mental illness is real and observable and requiring treatment and they usually identify it as profound a biological abnormality of brain functioning, such as serotonin deficencie s in depression (Comer, 2005).However it could be argued that it is pharmaceutical industry that continues to allow this approach to be taken. For example, if classifying a mental illness as real and observable with an underlying biological cause, this allows for the assumption that it can be treated, and the pharmaceutical industry fuels this, by providing the medication (Fisher, 2003 66). However this view is also advocated by psychiatry, because as Scull (2006) and Fisher (2003) argue, the profits that pharmaceutical companies make contribute towards funding research, the journals and the departments of psychiatry (Fisher, 2003 66). As such, the psychiatric profession have an invested interest in maintaining their positivist standpoint, and as this happens to conform to the positivist natural model of scientific research, it has take a firm stand itself as the only reality, due to holding this power (LaFrance, 2007 128).Usefulness of the hypercritical Evaluation of PsychiatryAs can be seen in the discussions above, the evaluations of psychiatry drawing on social theory perspectives have been quite critical, some(prenominal) in terms of how psychiatry defines and diagnoses mental illness, but also how the institution of psychiatry as a whole functions. For example it has drawn from post modern perspectives to suggest that the very notion of mental illness is socially constructed through discourse (Walker, 2006) and from a Foucauldian perspective, the psychiatric institution serves to control the deviant population by attempting to normalise them again through the use of disciplinary power (Roberts, 2005). However, while these evaluations are certainly useful and provide a perspective into how psychiatry and mental illness can be viewed, to take this wholly negative view may be just as problematic as adopting the purely positivist assumptions forwarded by psychiatry.For example, in addressing the first evaluation that mental illness can be considered to be socially constructed through discourse, as explained by Ussher (1997), if this is taken to the point of an organic social constructionist perspective, then nothing will actually be considered real, just multiple realities created through discourse. This could be problematic for those who do suffer from mental illness. For example interpreting mental illness as something that doesnt actually exist, or is not definable but merely a social construction is not very helpful for an individual with real symptoms which they experience. For example as Bowers (1998) mentions, to take a view that mental illness is something that could be considered effective or non existent is a failing to accept the reality of their anguish and disability (Bowers, 1998 104). As such, theoretically it may be useful to consider mental illness as socially constructed, and indeed given the study by Rosenhan (1973), diagnosis can often be difficult or misinterpreted, for those who actually suffer from mental i llness, a diagnosis may actually be whiffing. For example, in an excerpt from an individual with mental illness, it can be seen that often a diagnosis means that it feels something can then be done. The individual, when discussing her initial diagnosis of schizophrenia recalls it was so enormously helpful to think (a) this was something diagnosable, and (b) there are self help groups (Thornicroft, 2006 48).As such, while the psychiatric methods of defining and diagnosing mental illness could be seen as theoretically problematic, as they are known, individuals who are diagnosed may feel comforted to know that the symptoms they experience are not simple constructions, but an actual treatable illness.In addressing the second criticism social theory has levelled at psychiatry, in that from a Foucauldian perspective, it can be seen as an institution of continual surveillance and social control (Roberts, 2005). This implies that psychiatry exists with a unidirectional form of power, sele cting deviant individuals and attempting to normalise them through treatment and surveillance. However it could be said that this power/knowledge approach to psychiatry is somewhat simplistic, implying only psychiatric experts are mixed in addressing the diagnosis and treatment of lay peoples mental illness, however this may not be the case. As mentioned in the LaFrance (2007) study, sufferers of mental illness have been invited to express their views on their experiences of mental illness and how they viewed their treatment and this can often be used to inform and re-evaluate how these with mental illness should be treated by experts.For example Pilgrim and Rogers (1997) highlight that often those who had experienced mental illness could not contribute the onset to a singular cause but, identified numerous causes such as a loss of a child, previous abuse, having a broken engagement etc (Pilgrim and Rogers, 1997 42). However psychiatrists typically noted onset as originating from s omething which was termed biomedical (Pilgrim and Rogers, 1997 43) and as such, by identifying how sufferers view their illness, this can help further inform the experts. Similarly, Pilgrim and Rogers (1997) also highlight that there is not expert knowledge of mental illness and lay knowledge of mental illness but often the two are often intertwined, with expert knowledge becoming subject to layification (Pilgrim and Rogers, 39). Therefore to simply assert that psychiatry exerts social control and surveillance over mental illness suffers appears to be ignoring the notion that individuals may not be passive patients and may have their own interpretations and views on their illness.ConclusionIt is somewhat difficult to determine whether the critical evaluation social theory provides in reaction to the methods psychiatry uses to define and treat mental illness are more useful. For example, while the positivist methodology currently adopted by psychiatry has been problematic given thei r changing of what constitutes as mental illness (Balon, 2008) and also the reported difficulties in diagnosis (Rosenhan, 1973), it is unclear whether adopting a social constructionist approach would be useful in practice. While it certainly has highlighted the faults of positivist notions of schizophrenia and depression simply existing (Walker, 2006) and this may help to reduce stigma, given that it is such a astray accepted approach, people in some cases may find comfort in being given a diagnosis (Thornicroft, 2006).Similarly, while the works of Foucault are certainly insightful in suggesting that the liberation of the insane was merely a different form of confinement through social control, it does provide an assumption that psychiatry is merely an institution whose aims are to normalise individuals through medication and view them as simple, passive recipients of care. However as Pilgrim and Rogers (1997) highlighted, often knowledge which lay and experts hold of mental illne ss can become intertwined and, indeed, psychiatrists have utilized research into patients experiences in order to provide a better standard of care for them.Therefore this essay would advocate, in a similar manner to Ussher (1997) that neither the psychiatric positivist methods are completely flawless and neither are social theory approaches, such as post modernism or a Foucauldian analysis. However a combination of the two may not provide a better system either, therefore while it is acknowledged that social theory has provided a useful critical evaluation of psychiatry, it is not necessarily a correct one. As such, it may be more useful to consider the individuals who suffer from mental illness as the ones who should advocate h